Theories of development

Introduction:

There exist theories that depict the development of a human being. This paper discusses the Piaget’s theory, Freud’s theory, Erickson’s theory, Social learning theory, information-Processing Theory and the Ecological theory. This paper introduces each theory and compares and contrast them on the basis of Nature versus nurture, Organism versus mechanistic Quantitative versus qualitative and Continuous versus discontinuous.

Piaget’s theory

This theory was developed by Jean Piaget, in his theory he discusses the way in which a child develops and learns through the development of a cognitive structure which becomes more complex as development of the child continues. Piaget stated four stages of development which include;

o The sensor motor stage

This stage lasts from birth to two years of age, the child in this stage interacts with the environment and gets to know of reality and how this works, however the child is not aware of the existence of other objects that are out of sight.

o Preoperational stage:

This stage last between the age of 2 years and 7 years, at this stage the child interacts with the environment; the child however does not conceptualize abstract and reality.

o The concrete operation:

This stage lasts at the age of 7 years and 11 years, at this stage the child is able to conceptualize, at this stage also the child is able to structures that explain his or her experience with the environment.

o Formal operation:

This is the final stage that last from the age of 11 to the age of 15, at this stage cognitive structure is like that of an adult and the child develops conceptual reasoning.

Freud’s theory

Freud identified stages under which a child will undergo in mental development, the stages include:

o The oral stage:

This stage lasts from birth to two years, the child at this stage explores the world using the most sensitive part which includes the mouth, and the child also uses the mouth to communicate.

o The anal stage:

At this stage the child mostly learns to control their body waste passage.

o The phallic stage;

This stage is from 3 to 5years of age, at this stage the child will discover his or her sexual differences.

o Genital stage;

This stage starts from 12 years when poverty starts, sexual differences are evident and also sexual interests are evident.

Erickson’s theory:

Erickson accepts Freud’s theory but disagrees with him in that he only considered sexuality differences in the development of a child, he therefore considers other factors such as culture, he also accept the role of id, the ego and the super ego in development, he identified various concepts that explain the development of a child which include:

Trust versus Mistrust, Autonomy versus Shame, Initiative versus Guilt, Industry versus Inferiority, Identity versus Role Confusion, Intimacy versus Isolation, Generativist versus Stagnation and Integrity versus Despair.

Social learning theory:

Lev Vygotsky developed the social learning theory of development; he identifies the importance of social learning in child development. Lev states that learning helps in the acquisition of knowledge which the society expects the child to follow; he also stated that learning is acquired through modeling and observation.

Information Processing Theory:

This theory analyses how the information given enters the mind, how this information is stored and transformed and finally how it is usually retrieved in order to perform complex activities and reasoning and even in problem solving.

Ecological theory:

This theory was developed by Urie Bronfen Brenner, he identified the systems that models human development in the society and they include:

o The micro system:

This are the settings in which a person lives in, this micro system includes the family, peer group, neighborhood and school life, this system helps shape a persons development in that a person have direct contact with them.

o The Meso System:

This system is the relationship between the Microsystems. The Microsystems interrelate with each other and this can be seen with the relationship between school life, the neighborhood and the family, an example is where the peer groups may distort the performance of an individual in school or even the relationship of an individual with his family.

o The ecosystem:

In this system the individual has no active role in determining the settings but the settings have direct influence on the individual, an example is where the government will build schools which will create a micro system environment.

o The Macro system:

This is the system that is caused by the ideology in the society or the culture of the society, this influences the individual directly but the individual has less in determining his settings, this for example includes ideologies such as democracy, capitalism and socialism.

o The chrono system:

o This system develops as a result of a persons experience in his life, this includes environmental events and transitions in an individual’s life, and this also includes the history of an individual.

Ethological theory:

It is a theory developed by Conrad Lorenz, this theory states that experience by an individual has a very great influence on the development of an individual, this theory is tied to evolution and states that there are those stages in life that are considered to be sensitive and critical periods, Lorenz identifies concepts which include rapid, innate learning and imprint.

Comparison and contrasting the theories:

Continuity versus Discontinuity:

This comparison involves comparing whether theories describe development in a gradual and continuous manner from birth to death; the theories that are continuous give stages of development while the discontinuous only give distinct stages in life span.

Piaget’s theory, Freud’s theory and the Ecological theory arte continuous theories in that they give us the various stages in which development of a child will occur, these theories identify stages of development in a gradual and continuous manner and therefore they can be termed as continuous theories. The other theories only give a description of how learning and development occurs in certain stages in life and therefore they can be termed as discontinuous.

Nature versus nurture:

Social learning theory and the Information Processing Theory can be viewed as nurture form of theories, they give us the process by which the child development process can be nurtured and influenced through information, the other theories take a natural form of describing child development in that they only identify the stages as a form of natural occurrence in child development.

Quantitative versus qualitative

Piaget’s theory and Freud’s theory are quantities in nature in that they give the specific occurrence of certain stages in the development of a child, these theories give the duration of years in which specific developments occur, for the other theories they are qualitative in nature in that they don’t give stages and the years in which they occur, they only describe the process of development.

Alter dynamics of corporate behavior with intervention of the HR consultants

Communication within the workplace might sound simple but the reality differs. It is only with sustainable human resource planning and HR consulting it is possible to get the best benefits from the staffs. Without motivated staff it is difficult to make proper employee relations. Human resource planning is necessary for profit maximization and for this companies are eyeing to offer proper employee care with the help of HR consulting services. Across Australia corporations are seeking assistance of different HR consultants. Before approaching a HR related service provider it is best to initiate self research to check out the best options.

A company needs to manage all stakeholders, beside managing internal staffs it is indeed necessary to ensure that the clients are treated properly. Making a plan to ensure better employee relations is foremost essential and industrial relations experts can effectively identify the necessary areas of human resources training. There are different training organizations that organize special sessions for the corporations. And booking the training session has been easier as online booking is available. This training session helps professionals to learn the techniques of effective resource management and conflict management. Conflict within an organization can be highly detrimental and it can have strong impact upon employee relations.

Obtaining consultation from the Industrial Relations Expert is not a difficult job and just a little research with the help of a popular search engine helps us to identify one. Performance management is an essential way of enhancing better resource utilization. And in turn it helps us to reach the organizational goals with ease. Organizations are following the steps of leading equal opportunity employers and following their model of resource management across Australia. Trade unionism is now dealt by the HR managers and gone are the old days of hassle between employees and management.

Organizations can be of different sizes and all organizations can not spend to employ HR professionals. For smaller organizations it is a viable option to go for hr consulting services. The HR consulting services offer quotes and these quotes help us to know the rates for training sessions. Most of the HR consulting agencies and firms offer online enquiry facility. In addition toll free customer care numbers are also provided and by punching in further details can be found.

Workplace management is now a behavioral science with its own set of hypothesis and fir risk prevention it is an essential tool for the corporations. There are several theories of workplace management that the leading HR consultancies of Australia follow. To survive better in the globe it is important to have a clear insight about the latest processes of change management. There are different ways of communication and identifying the proper channel becomes easier for each participant of the different training programs organized by hr consultancies. It is advisable to find the workforce management and performance management providers with a little self research. Most of the reputed HR consultancies maintain and update web portals.

Several companies have managed resources and workplace relations with the help of HR consultants. Unfavorable conditions in the office become a cause of stress and this only lowers performance of resources, for ensuring a hassle free working environment it is wise to seek help of the different HR consulting firms.

Human resource planning is prerequisite while planning for a business

Leading a crowd during a major disagreement is a challenge and any organization faces a time when it becomes challenging to handle and tackle its employees. Human resource planning is completed within the particular department. Nowadays human resource activities are largely outsourced. In nations like Australia there are many human resource management firms or hr consulting companies that make resource management easier. The best possible hr consulting companies involve the best professionals. The professionals are actually experienced managerial cadres or people with a degree related to human resources. As practical experience matter a lot, the companies offer an amalgamation of seasoned professionals and the new comers.

There are many ways of communication and human resource planning is indeed an essential one. Nowadays social media is even used to reach the best professionals; only bringing together the best professionals is not at all end of the road. It is necessary to offer them the right tip and guidance to keep motivated. The human resources are necessary for tailoring the overall functioning of a corporation. In case of any crisis or requirement of urgent communication, the human resource departments play the vital role.

In case of organizing meetings or while arranging the press release, the human resource professionals make the ideas. Besides all office activities are arranged by the human resource planning departments. The best human resource companies offer web portals. The bookings and suggestions can be accepted online. The services can be booked online or even by punching in the toll free numbers. Workforce strategy making is essential to ensure proper functioning of the organizations. Australian professionals get ample of opportunities and often they hop jobs. It is only effective motivational factor that can keep the professionals within a single organization for long.

The best human resource planning companies manage personal administration is an enhanced way. Manpower management matter a lot and to have proper manpower management it is really necessary to involve best of the hr consulting services. The best hr consulting services come up with organization specific solutions and models. An innovative view of workplace management is only accessible with involvement of best of the professionals. When we reach the organizational goals it becomes easier and hassle free when the best HR consulting services are involved in it. But, who is the best and who offer unique solution again is a matter of confusion. The best human resource management and personal management can be only done when the background of the employees are thoroughly known.

There are ma online resources which help while the hunt for the Australian human resource planning companies is on. It is always prudent to remain informed and self research is indispensable. There are online discussion forums which helps us to remain a leap ahead of the others who are also eyeing for the human resource consultants. Human resources are considered to be the prime force that creates any organizational backbone. In the multicultural nation of Australia it is really prerequisite to have a strong human resource policy while establishing a company. By reading the articles it is possible to have better insight regarding the policies and process that the consultants follow.

A Paper on national education standards

McCain v. Obama

Introduction

The issue of education in American schools is very crucial during this year presidential campaigns between the republican presidential nominee senator McCain and the democratic presidential nominee senator barrack Obama. Both presidential candidates agree that the level of education standards is fallowing and that some kinds of reforms are needed in the education sector. However, each presidential candidate has his views and plans on how best to improve education in America. This study paper is going to make a comparative analysis of education platform of both senator McCain and senator Obama.

The following section will outline main issues of education and how the two candidate plan to handle the issues:

National education standards

Senator McCain has a view that the role of the federal government supportive necessitated states to formulate sound education policies and accountability mechanism. McCain is against national education standards, however, he suggest encouraging all states to willingly formulate their own standard to measure against international education standards. (Mayer, 2008)

Senator Obama seems to agree with senator McCain on the role of the federal government on education as being supportive. But, he wants the states to formulate education standard in conjunction with other states based on education standards formulated by different national education proposals. (Mayer, 2008)

Research and development

Senator McCain put a lot emphasizes on using research in determining which best policies can be used in education. McCain as well suggested improving academic-sector and research and development partnership and also want to expand the usage of data stored in the state data system for the purposes of research and development. (Mayer, 2008)

Here senator Obama has a different view, he suggest raising federal funds on research and development in education which he termed as presently being “immature field”. Obama feels that putting a lot of emphasis on trial design is taking an easy and narrow approach in dealing with an intricate education issue. He adds that simply because a particularly invention has proved to be successful in one situation does not imply that it can be used elsewhere and be successful again. As such the two senators have different approach on R&D in education. (Mayer, 2008)

Technology application in education

Senator McCain takes a supportive position here. However, he seems to favor a regulatory reform viewpoint instead of the public investment. McCain thinks that there is a great storm that is coming which will highly change the way education is through the use of technology. And he has called for the federal government and other policy makers to make sure that the present regulations do not hinder the growth of technology in schools particularly on distance learning.

Obama on the other hand has taken a philosophical view on this issue. He poses this question: “what is the floor and the ceiling of what education ought to be, to meet the present day students needs? (Obama, 2008) Thus, here though McCain and Obama both agree on importance of technology on education, Obama has some reservation on far technology has to be incorporated in education.

In general both McCain and Obama have are concerned about the use of technology in education. As sated McCain supports technology application in education and wants it to be limited in the manner it is used in a classroom setting. But, Obama wants technology to be well embraced within schools and classrooms to improve education if it should.

Federal government spending on education

The federal funding of education should be better and should be put on where they can be effectively be used such as in classroom, not on bureaucracy where the current spending seems to be based a lot. This is the viewpoint of senator McCain. On the other hand, Obama thinks that NCLB presently is not being financed well. But like McCain who specifies where to increase funding, Obama differs here, he suggests that the funding should be redefined so that funding is directed where it is required to ensure education is improved. For instance, ensuring that, every teacher has got high quality and training and that every student can access a high quality curriculum.

NCLB’s effects on education

Regarding the policy of no child left behind, which is the major issue and which has elicited a lot of arguments from the two Senators; McCain believes that it is the NCLB which should carry the responsibility in whatever negative things happening in the schools currently. He add that even the term itself “No Child Left Behind” is only a disruption averting logical of debate NCLB good contribution such as highlighting a number of students who before were hidden. This fact is not shared by Obama who views that every failure in schools can not be blamed on NCLB, since it tried to uplift the education for all American children. (Nedra, 2008)

McCain observes that the NCLB has failed; to him it is insincere to assert that the school systems should be saved when we can not save students from failure and lack of knowledge. He goes to make his most memorable quote “if a school won’t change, then students should change schools,” (McCain, 2008). This shows that McCain views education in American has being failed specially because of NCLB. To further elaborate this point, McCain observes that what is needed is a chance to shift students from these academic quandaries.

Nonetheless, Senator McCain is supportive of growth models to him he wants the growth models to continue being used. He termed NCLB name (not is provisions and objective) as being a disruption and a pretext presently. McCain seems also to have taken a controversial position when he stated that NCLB accountability and sanctions are the ones which are making some teachers to teach math. Woodward (2008) quotes McCain as saying that no federal government program needs to take the position of policing teachers or taking local actions on the teachers.

But, senator Obama differs with McCain on growth models; he wants a change on growth models where a new timely assessment method can be used. Senator Obama stresses the need to assess ability in this 21^stcentury where teachers have a lot of skills and not using the growth models which seems to be insensitive to teacher’s abilities. He wants a system which can include communication, collaboration and even information knowledge.

In addition, Senator Obama believes that what is needed in improving the NCLB operations, so that it can be more accountable in order for the system to support schools which require to be improved rather than punishing these schools. (Teddy and Miller, 2008)

However, Obama also agrees with McCain on the issue of NCLB pushing teachers to teach math. Obama feels that though teachers know that they have duty of teaching math, they feel as if they are pushed to do so by NCLB. But he offers a solution regarding math and science subjects, Obama believes that the way to solve the issue is by making the two subject to be a national main concern so that more graduates holding math and science degrees are recruited into the teaching profession to improve the teaching of these two subjects.

As pertaining if the NCLB has restricted the school curriculum, senator Obama views are that yes, indeed the NCLB has narrowed the curriculum. A fact that senator McCain views as not being correct.

Despite the fact that both senator McCain and Obama concur on the crucial role the teacher plays, and the importance of pedagogy as well as teaching profession advancement, the two senators disagree on the need of a complete NCLB financing. Senator Obama is calling for universal pre-K and timely autism testing. On the contra, McCain thinks that NCLB has done a lot of good; he attributes it with collection of enough information which can be put in use when recompensing teachers who raise the performance of their students.

School voucher system

On school vouchers, McCain supports them and say that it is the right moment to apply tools such as school vouchers and merit pay in education system to move away from the usual manner of using education policy. Annie (2008) explains that, McCain has suggested improving and increasing the amount spend by the federal government on school voucher plan.

But senator Obama has dismissed the using of school vouchers by those American who have a low-income. According to Obama this is the best way of improving education standards. However tough this move is welcomed by the teaching fraternity, it raises concerns with the parents. (Obama, 2008)

Merit pay

Senator McCain wants the performance based merit pay and also the differentiated pay to continue and he supports these pay systems for the teachers. On the contra, senator Obama is opposed to the usual merit pay method for the teachers. This system to him is ties the teacher’s salary to the student’s performance in test scores and to him is not the best way to pay teachers. Nonetheless, Obama supports a creative career path for teachers as well as local payment practices founded on “classroom performance” basing on the local interpretation.

Senator Obama (2008) on his website states that, more methods should be incorporated when considering rewarding of teachers instead of merit pay alone. He proposes using assessment systems such as mentorship. However, it seems that even senator McCain also agrees that they mentorship is in important in teaching profession.

General overviews of the two candidates

Senator McCain wants an education platform which is based on accountability, added thorough teaching standards, reforming the teacher licensure as well as the position that federal spending should be put where students are; in classrooms. In wrapping it up McCain education platform is placed on his readiness to tackle views and issues in which he understands that he will face opposition.

According to Mayer (2008) they makes an observation that, Obama stands on education platform which stresses that teachers should be seen as being “interventions”. He wants teaching profession to be transformed through improving teacher training, financial support from federal government, and better compensation terms. His main position is also the NCLB which he wants it to widen its assessment systems to assess broader aspects of student’s skills as well as their knowledge. In addition Obama also underscores the need to enhance education in the early childhood and that education policies need o holistic in approach in encompass child health as well as his/her wellbeing.

Conclusion

Education plays an important role in the development of a country and is a major concern for all American citizens. The position taken by the two presidential candidates differ in a number of aspects particularly on NCLB. However, there have been areas that both have concurred. In general the positions taken by the two presidential candidates seem to indicate their standing of their respective campaigns for president of America. Senator McCain position on education matters seem to be in line with those of the current administration, though there is some difference particularly on the NCLB accountability scheme. As for senator Barrack Obama, his stand on education issues in America seem to be based on the two main points; the need to raise federal spending on education and also to modify education policies to be in line with the changes which have occurred in all our systems, technology, social, health etc. In short to modernize the current education practices.